Cambios en los significados de la masculinidad en hombres del sur de Chile / Changes in the meaning of masculinity in men of southern Chile

Resumen En América Latina, los estudios sobre masculinidades e intervención con hombres, desarrollados en las últimas décadas, han buscado conocer las subjetividades y prácticas, así como los modelos y mandatos de la masculinidad, visibilizando la participación de los hombres en algunas desigualdades de género (Aguayo y Nascimento, 2016; Olavarría, 2017). Si bien estos estudios muestran una evolución en el modelo tradicional de masculinidad, en América Latina, y en especial en Chile, existen brechas de conocimiento acerca de las diferencias en las representaciones de la masculinidad en distintas generaciones y contextos sociales (Aguayo y Nascimento, 2016). El objetivo del presente estudio fue describir los significados de la masculinidad en hombres del sur de Chile, comparando generaciones y niveles socioeconómicos. Se utilizó un diseño de casos múltiples; la muestra estuvo constituida por jóvenes (18 a 24 años) y adultos medios (45-69 años) distribuidos en tres niveles socioeconómicos. Se desarrollaron seis grupos de discusión. Para el análisis de la información se llevó a cabo un primer nivel de codificación abierta, estableciendo unidades de significado. Estas unidades fueron transformadas por medio de un proceso inductivo en categorías, las cuales fueron comparadas para identificar similitudes, diferencias y posibles vínculos entre ellas. Se encontraron coincidencias y diferencias en los significados asociados a la masculinidad, en función de la edad y del nivel socioeconómico. Las coincidencias en función de la edad se dieron principalmente en las categorías Identidad y Trabajo, y las mayores diferencias en el núcleo Sexualidad, mientras que en función del nivel socioeconómico la mayor diferencia estuvo en la categoría Trabajo.

Abstract In Latin America, studies on masculinities and intervention with men developed in recent decades have sought to know the subjectivities and practices, as well as the models and mandates of masculinity, making visible the participation of men in some gender inequalities (Aguayo y Nascimento, 2016; Olavarría, 2017). Although these studies show an evolution in the traditional model of masculinity, in Latin America and in Chile, there are knowledge gaps about differences in the representations of masculinity in different generations and social contexts (Aguayo y Nascimento, 2016). The purpose of this study was describing the meanings of masculinity in men from southern Chile, comparing generations and socioeconomic levels. A multiple case design was used, sample consisted of 44 Chilean men, young men between 18 and 25 years, and middle adults between 45-69 years, distributed in 3 socioeconomic: levels, high, medium and low. Six discussion groups were developed around a set of guiding questions, built by the authors, in relation to the mandates of masculinity: identity referred to the characteristics that the participants consider essential to masculinity, sexuality, paid work and paternity. Information obtained was transcribed the first level of open coding was then carried out, which consisted in selecting units of meaning which emerged from the answers to the guiding questions. These units, consisting of paragraphs, were transformed into categories by an inductive process, each category being given a code representing its meaning. The second level of coding -at a greater level of abstraction- consisted in comparing the categories, identifying similarities, differences and possible links between them. Results, in the first nucleus, Identity, arise as main categories: Concept in Transition, Difficulty of Being Men, Action-Oriented, Restriction in the Expression of Emotions, Integrity, Masculinity given by the Biological Condition. In the second nucleus Work: Provide Identity Trait of Masculinity, Facilitator of Independence, Source of Self-Realization and Dignification, Obstacle for the Satisfaction of Other Needs, Labor Discrimination towards Women. In the third nucleus, Sexuality, categories differentiated by age, in young people emerge Acceptance of Homosexuality, Stereotypes in Sexual Behavior and Increase in Sexual Demands. In adults Divergences against the Mandate of Heterosexuality and in both groups Sexual Behavior in Transition. On the other hand, coincidences and differences were found in the meanings associated with masculinity, depending on age and socioeconomic status. The coincidences in the Identity nucleus, realize that men, regardless of their age or socioeconomic condition, experience a situation of accelerated change in their roles, which affects them to a greater or lesser extent, which is experienced by the majority of young people as a possibility of transcending stereotypes, allowing them greater degrees of freedom. Regarding the core Work, however, the broad coincidence in all groups in relation to the mandate of being a provider, certain nuances are appreciated, for adults it is an internal mandate, a duty of masculinity, while for young people it seems respond to an external social demand, which accounts for a masculinity in transition. The differences, by age range were the nucleus Sexuality, where young people have more openness to address their own sexuality and more inclusive behaviors against homosexuality. Differences relating socioeconomic level occurred in the nucleus Work between young people and adults. If in the young people of high and medium socioeconomic level, work implies the possibility of becoming independent, for youngsters of low socioeconomic level, it also means taking care of their parents, responding to a duty of reciprocity. In adults of low socioeconomic level, unlike those in the medium and high level, the centrality and physical requirement of work displaces others needs as health care and sexual life.

Consumo de drogas y violencia en el noviazgo en estudiantes universitarios del sur de Chile / Drug abuse and dating violence in university students in southern Chile

La presente investigación tuvo por objetivo describir la relación entre consumo de drogas y violencia en el noviazgo, en jóvenes universitarios del sur de Chile. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 205 estudiantes, quienes respondieron a dos instrumentos: un cuestionario de detección de consumo problemático de alcohol y otras drogas y un cuestionario de violencia de pareja en jóvenes. Los resultados obtenidos muestran una relación significativa y directa entre consumo de drogas y violencia en el noviazgo. Específicamente se obtuvo una asociación significativa entre consumo y ser víctima de violencia psicológica y física. Se discuten estos resultados en sus implicancias teóricas y prácticas, señalando las limitaciones de la investigación y sugerencias para futuros estudios.

The present investigation aimed to describe the relationship between drug use and dating violence in university students of southern Chile. A sample of 205 students completed two instruments: a questionnaire for detecting problematic use of alcohol and other drugs and a questionnaire for detecting intimate partner violence in young people. Results show a significant and direct relationship between drugs and alcohol use and dating violence. Regarding consumption and types of violence, a significant association between consumption and being victim of psychological and physical violence was found. Results are discussed as to their theoretical and practical implications, indicating the limitations of this research and suggestions for future studies.

International variations in harsh child discipline.

BACKGROUND: Although the history of recognition of child abuse in Europe and North America extends over 40 years, recognition and data are lacking in other parts of the world. Cultural differences in child-rearing complicate cross-cultural studies of abuse. OBJECTIVE: To ascertain rates of harsh and less-harsh parenting behavior in population-based samples. METHODS: We used parallel surveys of parental discipline of children in samples of mothers in Brazil, Chile, Egypt, India, Philippines, and the United States. Data were collected between 1998 and 2003. The instrument used was a modification of the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale, along with a study-developed survey of demographic characteristics and other parent and child variables. Women (N=14 239) from 19 communities in 6 countries were surveyed. We interviewed mothers aged 15 to 49 years (18-49 years in the United States) who had a child younger than 18 years in her home. Sample selection involved either random sampling or systematic sampling within randomly selected blocks or neighborhoods. RESULTS: Nearly all parents used nonviolent discipline and verbal or psychological punishment. Physical punishment was used in at least 55% of the families. Spanking rates (with open hand on buttocks) ranged from a low of 15% in an educated community in India to a high of 76% in a Philippine community. Similarly, there was a wide range in the rates of children who were hit with objects (9%-74% [median: 39%]) or beaten by their parents (0.1%-28.5%). Extremely harsh methods of physical punishment, such as burning or smothering, were rare in all countries. It is concerning that >or=20% of parents in 9 communities admitted shaking children younger than 2 years. CONCLUSIONS: Physical and verbal punishments of children are common in high-, middle-, and low-income communities around the world. The forms and rates of punishment vary among countries and among communities within countries. A median of 16% of children experienced harsh or potentially abusive physical discipline in the previous year.

Mejoramiento de la calidad de vida: experiencia con mujeres climatéricas del Consultorio Villa Alegre, Temuco, Chile / Improvement of the quality of life: experience with climateric women from Villa Alegre Health Clinic, Temuco, Chile

El presente artículo tiene como objetivo describir la experiencia de la aplicación de un programa de atención integral a la mujer en etapa climatérica, desarrollado desde el año 2000 en el Consultorio Villa Alegre de la Comuna de Temuco. El principal objetivo de este programa es promover el mejoramiento de la calidad de vida de las mujeres consultantes favoreciendo tanto su equilibrio fisiológico como psicológico. Uno de los ejes del programa es la intervención psicosocial del grupo orientado a facilitar el establecimiento de redes de apoyo y el desarrollo de potencialidades de las participantes. Se describe la experiencia de 20 mujeres, las cuales presentaban trastornos del ánimo y/o trastorno de ansiedad, quienes iniciaron su participación en el grupo en el año 2002. A principios del año 2003, obtuvieron personalidad jurídica, lo cual les permitió vincularse con redes sociales y postular a distintos proyectos. El éxito del programa sobrepasó los objetivos iniciales puesto que las mujeres no sólo superaron sus síntomas sino que, además, lograron cohesión grupal y empoderamiento tanto de su espacio físico como psicológico. Este logro se relacionaría con la forma en que se implementó el taller, siendo un elemento clave la creación de un clima de aceptación y respeto, y la confianza de los profesionales en las capacidades y recursos de las participantes. Esta forma de trabajar reduce el paternalismo de los profesionales y la dependencia de los usuarios, favoreciendo que esfuerzos invertidos en la promoción de la organización comunitaria en función de mejorar la calidad de vida, tengan permanencia en el tiempo.

Training and field methods in the WorldSAFE collaboration to study family violence.

INTRODUCTION: This paper describes the collaborative efforts of research teams from medical schools in India, Chile, Egypt, the Philippines, Brazil, and the United States to develop and implement a core protocol for household surveys on family violence and to conduct standardized training for field workers. Our objectives are to share successes and difficulties encountered in training and field work and to offer recommendations for similar undertakings. METHODS: Study methods, developed by a multidisciplinary group of international investigators, were documented in a procedures manual. On-site standardized training was conducted and field workers were monitored for adherence to protocol. Special attention was given to safety and ethical issues. RESULTS: Overall, the training protocol and field methods were successful with relatively few problems encountered. Study participants were receptive to the interview and cooperated in safety procedures. The most common problem in the field was interruptions of the interview, mostly by children. Community advisory boards were actively involved in some of the sites, providing guidance on the safety and logistical aspects of the study, facilitating access to study communities, and providing community service information that could be shared with all study participants. CONCLUSIONS: WorldSAFE successes were attributed to rigorous standardized training and monitoring of field work; meticulous protocol implementation; unflagging attention to the ethical issues and to safeguarding study participants, field workers, and data; and openness and trust developed among the collaborators during the extended developmental phase.

Physical intimate partner violence in Chile, Egypt, India and the Philippines.

BACKGROUND: Violence against women is recognized by globally as a serious health and social problem that impedes development. OBJECTIVES: To determine the magnitude of physical intimate partner violence against women in six selected communities from Chile, Egypt, India and the Philippines. DESIGN: Population-based household surveys. SETTINGS: Selected urban communities in Temuco, Chile; Ismailia, Egypt; Lucknow, Trivandrum, and Vellore non-slum areas of India; and in Manila, the Philippines. PARTICIPANTS: Women aged 15-49 years who cared for at least one child younger than 18 years old. The number of participants per community was 442 (Santa Rosa, Chile), 631 (El-Sheik Zayed, Egypt), 506 (Lucknow, India), 700 (Trivandrum, India), 716 (Vellore, India) and 1000 (Paco, the Philippines). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Lifetime and Current physical intimate partner violence (IPV) was measured using standard definitions and four behaviors of actions--namely slap, hit, kick and beat. Three derived variables for severity included: disabling IPV, IPV-related injury requiring health care and multiple severe IPV (presence of hit and kick and beat). RESULTS: Percentages of lifetime and current physical intimate partner violence (IPV) against women in our sample of 3975 were as follows: 24.9 and 3.6 (Santa Rosa), 11.1 and 10.5 (El-Sheik Zayed), 34.6 and 25.3 (Lucknow), 43.1 and 19.6 (Trivandrum) 31.0 and 16.2 (Vellore), and 21.2 and 6.2 (Paco). Multiple severe physical IPV was more common in the three communities within India (9.0%, 5.9% and 8.0% in Trivandrum, Lucknow and Vellore) than the other three communities (Santa Rosa 2.1%; El-Sheik Zayed 2.9% and Paco 1.9%). CONCLUSIONS: Physical IPV was found to be a common phenomenon in all six communities. Overall, patterns of IPV behaviors were similar among the six communities.

Partner violence as a risk factor for mental health among women from communities in the Philippines, Egypt, Chile, and India.

Although studies have documented the associations between Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) and mental health, few have been done in developing countries. In this study, the association between IPV and mental health in women from different developing countries was established. Women, 15 to 49 years old with at least one child 18 years old or younger, were randomly selected from communities in Chile, Egypt, India, and the Philippines (N = 3974). The Self Report questionnaire (SRQ) was used to assess mental health. Women with a score on the SRQ of 8 or more, or who reported ever attempting suicide, were classified as having poor mental health. Physical IPV was defined as being slapped, hit, kicked, beaten or threatened by a male partner during the past year. Psychological violence included being insulted or belittled, threatened or abandoned. Between 22.5% (in Egypt) to 41% (in Chile) of participating women reported a score of eight or more on the SRQ. High score on the SRQ were significantly associated with current physical and psychological IPV in the samples from all participating countries except Chile. Twelve percent of women in Chile, 2.6%, in Egypt, 7.5% in India and 1.6% in the Philippines reported attempting suicide. Suicide attempts were also associated with current physical IPV in the Philippines, Egypt, and India, and with psychological violence in Egypt and India. IPV is significant risk factor for poor mental health in these developing countries. Efforts to reduce IPV should be considered as part of a mental health program.

World studies of abuse in the family environment--risk factors for physical intimate partner violence.

OBJECTIVES: To identify risk factors for physical intimate partner violence against women in Chile, India, Egypt and the Philippines. DESIGN: Population-based household survey. SETTINGS: Selected urban communities in Temuco, Chile; ISmailia, Egypt; Lucknow, Trivandrum and Vellore in India and Metro Manila, Philippines. PARTICIPANTS: Women aged 15-49 years of age who care for at least one child younger than 18 years of age. The number of participants was 442 in Chile, 631 in Egypt, 506 in Lucknow, 700 in Trivandrum, 716 in Vellore and 1000 in the Philippines. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Risk of and protective factors against lifetime physical IPV. RESULTS: Significant associations were found between several risk factors like regular alcohol consumption of the husband/partner, past witnessing of father beating mother, the woman's poor mental health and poor family work status, with any lifetime physical IPV. Woman's poor mental health and witnessing father beat mother were statistically significant only in a few sites. Poor family work status, differences in employment between husband and wife and experiencing harsh physical punishment during childhood, were not found to be statistically significant across all sites. Protective factors, like higher levels of husband's and wife's education, were only found to be significantly associated with any lifetime physical IPV in Trivandrum, India. Social support was not significantly associated with any lifetime physical IPV across all sites. CONCLUSIONS: These large population-based household surveys have provided empirical evidence of the widespread nature of domestic violence and the relative commonality of risk factors across sites.